Answer Key Section 1 Reinforcement Cell Division And Mitosis.zip [BETTER]
Answer Key Section 1 Reinforcement Cell Division And Mitosis.zip
The list goes on. Here we just highlight some additional examples of the ability of cells to exploit the environment. For example, as explained above, symmetric divisions are increasingly recognized as an efficient means to ensure tissue homeostasis [ 66 74 ], but the mechanisms regulating this process are far from understood. In particular, what are the roles of mechanical cues and adhesion? Some interesting data are emerging, but further research is needed. Another example is the entry of cells into quiescence, a state of low metabolic activity, which is a feature of many adult stem and differentiated cells in order to reduce the metabolic load when confronted with potentially detrimental events (e.g., the infiltration of immune cells) or respond to internal signals (e.g., aging, damage of DNA). It has been proposed that the homeostatic quiescence might be achieved by asymmetric mitotic divisions, but this has not been definitely demonstrated. Finally, as mentioned above, stress fibers are seen in some eukaryotes in response to various stresses, such as the detachment of some epithelial cells from the basement membrane [ 75 ]. Their contribution to cell migration and to the repair of wounds has been extensively documented. How these fibers are organized during mitosis, and how they are regulated during cell division, is still largely unknown. Several recent papers shed light on this exciting research field (e.g., [ 76 ]).
The generation of the mitotic spindle involves three steps, starting from the centrosome and generating the bipolar spindle. Polymerization of the microtubules is responsible for the separation of the two centrosomes to generate the bipolar spindle. During this process, microtubule plus ends are dynamically captured and released from the centrosome. Microtubule polymerization is driven by the well-studied tubulin glutamylation cycle by many tubulin glutamyltransferases (GTs) and tubulin tyrosine ligases (TTLs) [ 5, 9 ]. Microtubule plus ends can be stabilized by the action of tubulin acetyltransferase (TAT). Depolymerization of microtubules results in the generation of the cleavage furrow and promotes cell cleavage. Finally, cytokinesis involves the contraction of the central spindle, sealing of the cleavage furrow and abscission of the two daughter cells. A number of endocytic pathways have been shown to play a role in the above-mentioned processes. Interestingly, some of these pathways have been implicated in the generation of contractile forces in cells [ 66 ], and thus, these pathways may also have a role in the maintenance of the epithelia barrier and cell polarity. In this section, we will discuss the involvement of these different endocytic pathways in the generation and maintenance of cell polarity and the generation of a stable epithelium during mitosis and cytokinesis.
Third, the analogy of the furrow ingression in polarized and planar epithelial cells leads to the intriguing possibility that the cell-cell contacts, which are similar to AJs, may also have a role in the control of cell division in the face of extensive folding of the epithelium. In this regard, it has been shown that cadherins are also involved in the oriented deposition of the extracellular matrix around the contacts between epithelial cells [ 11 ]. At confluence, the cadherin-mediated adhesive interactions, in addition to instruct the orientation of the mitotic spindle, may also organize the cytoskeleton, which is otherwise in a highly disorganized state [ 240 ], and, as a consequence, help to the furrowing of the epithelium. Thus, cell-cell contacts, like AJs, have the potential to organize the architecture of the epithelium.
Cytoplasmic dyneins are the major motors responsible for a number of membrane trafficking events, among which the mitotic spindle assembly and movement. They drive membrane trafficking along actin filaments towards microtubule minus ends, presumably using adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis to power the process. This process is known to be critical during cell migration, division and cytokinesis. The molecular details of the interaction between dyneins and membranes are unknown. However, dynein-mediated membrane recruitment can be stimulated by microtubule and actin dynamics [ 253 ]. Dynein is believed to provide a mechanical force that is used to constrict the membrane in the abscission or other phases of cytokinesis [ 253 ]. Moreover, a number of dynein-dependent proteins are known to be recruited at the abscission site. In particular, it has been shown that the Rab GTPase, atlastin-1, is recruited to the abscission site via the cytoplasmic dynein-dependent mechanism [ 154, 155 ].
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